The Nature of the Fraud and the Impact to the Company Assignment

The Nature of the Fraud and the Impact to the Company - Assignment Example Enron was a very prosperous and prominent firm that was an American energy company established in Houston, Texas. Enron was formed in 1985 by Kenneth Lay after he had acquired two other gas companies in his quest to become a conglomerate in the American history. Nonetheless, after Enron’s biggest scandal, shareholders lost around $11 billion as the company continued on the downward spiral. Enron finally filed for bankruptcy at its $63.4 billion in assets were completely diluted. Many of the stockholders got measly pennies back for the huge investments they had in the company. Enron was charged with â€Å"cooking the books† along with their associates Arthur-Anderson. In essence, the company was running a Ponzi scheme. A Ponzi scheme is a strategy used by creditors to attract new investors in the company and utilize their funds to pay off old debts. Enron’s financial statements did not comply with the operations and finances of the shareholders and analysts (2002) . The Enron Scandal and the Neglect of Management Integrity Capacity http://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?q=cache:gxCBEAYU1csJ:scholar.goo). Moreover, the Enron management continued to implement unethical practices as they would modify the balance sheet in order to favor the revenue goals that the corporation wanted to achieve (2010). "Non-Media" Jury Prejudice and Rule 21(a). http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_7725/is_201010/ai_n57243330/) The continuous spiral of modifying the financial statements became a continuous habit and the lead cause of the downfall of the company. Undoubtedly, managers in corporate America have to protect the interests of the corporate executives along with the goals of the stakeholders. The management clearly neglected responsibility for overseeing the unethical practices that were plaguing the corporation. The Enron scandal continued to grow worse every year as it became a problem that was out of control (2010). "Non-Media" Jury Prejudice and Rule 21(a). http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_7725/is_201010/ai_n57243330/). The primary motivation for Enron was to keep their gross income high along with cash flow while diminishing their liabilities and long-term debts. The moral and legal framework that has been embedded in S The dynamic culture environment of Enron was clearly based on a money-making scheme. Corporate employees were under constant pressure to reach their revenue goals that the firm came up with. In essence, Enron’s corporate culture can be best depicted through aggressive growth, risk-taking, profit planning and commercial innovations. Although some may deem this as positive values, one cannot diminish the fact that a corporation must acknowledge and mitigate the risks (2006). Four Years After Enron. http://www.independent.org/publications/tir/article.asp?a=585). Since these values were not balanced and were never embedded in the principles of corporate integrity, the goal to reap high revenue beca me the core culture value for the organization.  

Emergency department bottleneck proposal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Emergency department bottleneck proposal - Essay Example The causes of the problem are two fold. The first is that the inflow of patients into the ED is not evenly spaced throughout the day and occurs as a rush during fours in the late evening and night. No plan can be created for changing the pattern of inflow of patients into the ED, as they occur as naturally. The second is that during the peak flow of patients into the ED, the services that are required to provide support for the ED in the provision of timely and quality care are functioning at their minimal ability, since they are in the after-hours mode. This is the cause that the sigma team to address in overcoming the problem. Practical barriers to receiving quality care in an ED is dependent on two key factors of access to service at the ED and the availability of the services required support services either in the ED or immediately accessible (Rust et al, 2008). Overcoming these barriers to quality service calls for consideration of the types of patients and the emergencies and the resources at the ED (Frush, 2007). The essential problem in quality care in an ED is the mismatch in the demand and supply of resources at the ED. From the perspective of the patient seamless provision of care from the time of arrival at the ED is the quality of service expected. The first step is this direction is preventing diversion of ambulances to the ED, which will reduce the overcrowding at the ED (Stokowski, 2007). The next step consists in organizing the ED into three separate areas to attend to areas to attend to medical problems, surgical problems and Urgent care area for triaging of patients. Staffing of the ED is the next issue. Since the ED peaks between 6.00 pm and 10.00 pm specialist services in the required different branches of medicine will be available. In addition the number of interns or residents at the ED will peak during this period of

Conflicts Among Co Workers Cultural Studies Essay

Conflicts Among Co Workers Cultural Studies Essay Abstract Due to globalization, more interaction among Mauritian from diverse cultures, beliefs and backgrounds are increasing more than ever before in the working environment. Most people and companies are facing the need to communicate cross-culturally. Therefore, maximizing and capitalizing on workplace diversity has become an important issue for management today. Unfortunately, due to cultural prejudices and ethnocentrism of some co-workers, most employees form culturally diverse workgroups are unable to cooperate and work together in an organization. Thus, it consequently creates conflicts and barrier to communication resulting in an improper business environment. Acknowledgement Chapter 1: Introduction Introduction of the project The purpose of this study is to determine the factors that cause conflicts among co-workers from culturally diverse workgroups. The link has to be established between those two factors conflicts and culture. This study target the whole Mauritian population as potential respondents, being a multi cultural country most of us have experienced at least once the impact that our culture may have on our relationship with colleagues, on our work and people reactions towards us. Communication and mutual understanding among us is sometimes the root to conflict resolution. Thats why throughout the researches and analysis of data much focus would be laid on sources of conflicts, culture impacts, double effects of diversity and communication as a solution to bridge the gap. Problem Statement In a multi-cultural country like Mauritius Island, increased cultural diversity in work places has aroused considerable attention to conflict management and intercultural sensitivity. Diverse workgroups pose several challenges (Egan and Tsui, 1992; Ayoko and Hartel, 2002). However, few studies have investigated these two concepts conflict and culturally diverse workgroups (CDWS) together. The present study aim to bridge the gap in this line of research with an examination between those two concepts situations stated below. Some studies in this area shows that diverse workgroups are hampered by process loss (Milliken and Martins, 1996), high levels of conflict (Egan and Tsui, 1992) and low levels of cohesion and social integration (Hambrick, 1994). Although conflict is not limited to culturally diverse workgroups (CDWs), (see Jehn, 1997; Tjosvold, 1991a, b, c), the potential for conflict in Mauritian companies for CDWs is greater than culturally homogeneous workgroups because of the operation of cultural prejudices, biases and stereotypes as well as value differences (Harrison et al., 1998). These factors are proposed to affect processes such as communication in CDWs (see Larkey, 1996). Previous studies also suggest that a groups demographic composition influences communication between group members because people tend to communicate with those who are similar to themselves (Zenger and Lawrence, 1989). Group members, who perceive themselves as similar, tend to communicate with each other more openly. When group members perceive themselves as dissimilar, communication is impacted negatively. Specifically, demographic diversity is associated with increased problems with communication, co-ordination, dysfunctional conflict and a potential for decreased performance (Pelled et al., 1999). It is argued that communication openness is antecedent to the differing group members reactions to conflict events, which, in turn, are proposed to impact groups task and social outcomes. Aim of Study The aim of this study is to determine whether employees from culturally diverse workgroups are ground for organizational conflicts among co-workers. The present study also aims to assess the role and impact of communication openness as a conflict resolution method among work groups of different cultural backgrounds. Objectives of Study To establish the link that relates conflict to cultural backgrounds in the working environment. (or To establish the factors that leads to cross-cultural conflict in the working environment) Analyzing people mindset towards colleagues from other cultures. Assessing sources of conflict that may arise and its impact within employees from culturally diverse workgroups. Assessing communication openness impact as a conflict resolution method for multi cultural interaction among employees. Outline of Study Chapter 2: Review of Literature Introduction Conflict Nature of Conflict For long conflict has been considered as one of the most important aspect of modern management (Wilson Jerrell, 1981). Augsburger (1992:11) defined conflict as a crisis that forces us to recognize explicitly that we live with multiple realities and must negotiate a common reality; that we bring to each situation differing frequently and must negotiate a common reality; that we bring to each differing- frequently contrasting- stories and must create together a single shared story with a role for each and for both. Commonly, conflict may be understand as a feeling, a disagreement, a real or perceived incompatibility of interests, inconsistent worldviews, or a set of behaviors (Mayer, 2000:3). In todays organizations conflict is viewed as unavoidable in organizations and groups of people due to the complexity and interdependence of organizational life. Theorists are still debating throughout the researches to know whether it is beneficial or harmful to companies. Organizational conflict theorists such as Pondy (1967) and Brown (1984) suggested that conflict is of uttermost importance to the good functioning of an organization; moreover they suggest that much more attention must be focus on the causes and resolution of these conflicts (Schmidt and Kochan, 1972; Brown, 1983). Sources of conflict/Contributors to conflict at the Workplace The possible sources of conflict are poor communication, competition for common but scarce resources, incompatible goals and the like14. Fisher (1997) notes, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦both individuals and groups have undeniable needs for identity, dignity, security, equity, participation in decisions that affect them. Frustration of these basic needsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.becomes a source of social conflict According to Plunkett and Attner (1989), the sources of conflict include; shared resources, differences in goals, difference in perceptions and values, disagreements in the role requirements, nature of work activities, individual approaches, and the stage of organizational development. Gray and Stark (1984) suggested that there are six sources of conflict. These are: 1) Limited resources; 2) Interdependent work activities; 3) Differentiation of activities; 4) Communication problems; 5) Differences in perceptions; 6) The environment of the organization. According to these writers, conflict can also arise from a number of other sources, such as: 1) Individual differences (some people enjoy conflict while others dont); 2) Unclear authority structures (people dont know how far their authority extends); 3) Differences in attitudes; 4) Task symmetries (one group is more powerful than another and the weaker group tries to change the situation; 5) Difference in time horizons (some departments have a long-run view and others have a short -run view). Another author Deutch in camp bell et-al (1983:187) identified a list of sources of conflict. These are; control over resources, preferences and nuisances, values, beliefs, and the nature of relationships between the parties. The classification of conflict is often made on the basis of the antecedent conditions that lead to conflict. Conflict may originate from a number of sources, such as tasks, values, goals, and so on. It has been found appropriate to classify conflict on the basis of these sources for proper understanding of its nature and implications. Dealing with conflict/ Conflicts Resolution Methods/ Conflict Management Styles (techniques) Researchers have identified several modes or styles people use to deal with conflict. While the most widely-understood paradigm for resolving conflict may be that of fight (i.e. to compete and win the conflict) or flight (i.e. to avoid people with whom one is in conflict), it is also common to find managers who have other styles of dealing with workplace conflict. Follett, a classical management theorist, was many decades ahead of her time when she conceptualized three styles of handling conflict domination, compromise, and integration and argued for an integrative approach to conflict resolution (Metcalf and Urwick, 1940). Schmidt and Tannenbaum (1960) discuss four approaches to conflict resolution avoidance, repression, competitive and collaborative with the most appropriate approach depending on informational, perceptual, role, and other factors. Types and levels of Conflicts Thomas (1976) is generally credited for popularizing five general styles or strategies for managing conflict avoiding, obliging/accommodating, dominating, compromising, and collaborating/integrating. He also categorized these styles by two key dimensions: (1) The degree of concern for self, which can also be viewed as assertiveness or how assertive one is likely to be in pursuing ones interests; and (2) The degree of concern for others, or how cooperatively one is willing to engage the other party. Conflict management styles/modes Research on conflict styles suggests that managers tend to use one or two styles regardless of whether those styles are most appropriate for the situation, and that managers respond to a conflict situation based on the way they feel instead of the way they should respond (Aldag and Kzuhara, 2002; Hellriegel et al., 2001; Whetten and Cameron, 2002). Several scholars (e.g. Thomas and Kilmann, 1974) have developed questionnaires to help managers gain a deeper understanding of their dominant style of conflict-resolution behavior and help them determine whether changes in their style could increase their effectiveness in resolving conflicts. The literature suggests that: . Variations of these styles may be appropriate under certain conditions; . Managers should be aware of their dominant style; and . Managers should make a conscious effort to choose the best style for each situation. Based on an extensive review of scientific studies, Rahim (2001) concluded that there appears to be agreement among scholars that the collaborative or integrative style is the superior approach to handling workplace conflicts because it promotes creative problem solving and fosters mutual respect and rapport. They point out that a consistent application of this style offers the greatest probability of producing win-win results for both involved parties. Consequently, in an attempt to achieve win-win outcomes, many scholars (e.g. Fisher and Ury, 1982; Dana, 2001; Cloke and Goldsmith, 2000; Rahim, 2001) have offered specific to do lists or steps. A review of these approaches to conflict resolution suggests that although there is general consensus regarding the basic principles of developing a win-win strategy (see following list), there is no structured, systematic approach to developing win-win solutions to organizational conflicts. The four points of principled negotiation (Adapted from Fisher and Ury, 1982) are as follows: (1) Separate the people from the problem. (2) Focus on interests, not positions. (3) Generate a variety of possibilities before deciding what to do. (4) Insist that the result be based on some objective standard. Recently, Hoffman (2005, 2007) argued that diagrammatic reasoning is useful for bringing hidden knowledge to the surface so it can be explicitly considered by participants in a negotiation or conflict. Hoffman proposes a system referred to logical argument mapping to make such knowledge explicit and makes a strong case for the benefits of diagrammatic approaches in general in communicating and resolving conflicts. We believe Goldratts evaporating cloud provides a structured, systematic way to resolve conflicts while it provides the benefits of the collaborative/integrative conflict resolution style. In addition, the EC is a logical diagramming approach that we believe provides the significant benefits enumerated by Hoffmann (2005). In essence, it provides managers and co-workers a mechanism to effectively manage their reaction to conflict and be a part of the solution to difficult situations. Another conflict resolution method used today is Mediation is another way of conflict management. Bentley (1996) describes mediation as a form of problem solving process where a neutral third party assists disputants to reach a mutually acceptable agreement. Culture and Conflict / Cross-Cultural Conflict Culture refers to systems of meaning values, beliefs, expectation, and goals shared by a particular group of people distinguishing them from members of other groups (Gooderham and Nordhaug 2003 pg 131; Schneider and Barsoux 2003, cited in Martin G. 2006). People in different cultures quite often have different ideologies, and such differences are important to decide the way they respond and react in a conflicting situation. Throughout this study, researchers would determine the link that exists between culture and conflict. Culture Culture Background Culture is the manifold ways of perceiving and organizing the world that are held in common by a group of people and passed on interpersonally and intergenerationally (Yuan, 2006, p. 5). According to David Victor, it is the part of behavior that is at once learned and collective, and is therefore, taught rather than instinctive or innate (2001, p. 30). Starting at birth, the infant mind is somewhat like a blank tape, waiting to be filled, culture plays a large part in the recording process (Fisher, 1988, p. 45). Handed down from members within the larger community, it is gradually reinforced and imprinted into individuals mind as time progresses. Culture directly influences the way in which people within the context communicate, and the way in which they perceive each other (Victor, 2001). As a result, one organizations conduct, developed in a particular environment and reflecting the local staffs cultural identity, may not be applicable to another culture. People around the world are similar as well as different, they are similar since they share common characteristics, and at the same time they are different since each one of them have been born and brought up in different cultures having different set of values. According to Naylor (1997), all human beings are fundamentally the same, but culture makes them different and distinguishes them from other groups by creating and developing their own version of culture to meet their needs, desires and goals. In other words, culture serves as an element that helps humans to identify and define themselves. Therefore, Naylor (1997) defined culture as the learned way (or ways) of belief, behavior, and the products of these (both physically and socially) that is shared (at least to some degree) within human groups and serves to distinguish that culture group from another learning different beliefs and behaviors (p. 1). Ting Toomey (1999) also made a similar definition of culture. She defined culture as a learned meaning system that consists of patterns of traditions, beliefs, values, norms, and symbols that are passed on from one generation to the next and are shared to varying degrees by interacting members of a community (Ting Toomey, 1999, p. 10). Cultural Stereotype and Preconceptions Stereotype refers to the simplified viewpoint that one social group holds for the other. Cultural stereotype is attributed to over-generalization, which claims that the cultural characteristic of one individual can also be applied to the group, and ignores the mobile and changeable nature of culture as a whole (Beamer Varner, 2009). Considering mankinds limited capacity to process messages, and todays overwhelming volume of information, it may be helpful for people to try to summarize cultural differences, and establish cultural models. In this sense, some extent of qualified stereotype could be instrumental for it facilitates mutual understanding and learning between cultures. However, when this strategy is adopted generally, undesired effects arise. Generally, because of the stereotyped preconception in our mind, we want to see what we think we will see. Ones cultural belief system learned during socialization, ones experiences, and ones currently salient roles all contribute to the composition of what Bruner has called the individuals expectancy set; what he is set for perceiving in a situation and in other people (Simmons and McCall, 1966, p. 63). Furthermore, due to this mentality, we are not only attracted to things that we anticipate seeing and try to interpret them based on our limited knowledge, but we also disregard or belittle things that deviate from expectations. Cultural Prejudices, Ethnocentrism and Bullying When dealing with cultural aspects there are two aspects that we need to keep in mind, cultural prejudice and ethnocentrism. Cultural prejudice refers to the formation of opinion on certain members of the group grounded on the previous perception, attitude, and viewpoint of the group, heedless of the particular characteristic of the individual (Zhang and Xu, 2007). In cross-cultural communication, people often rely on their first impressions and assumptions, drawing on previous knowledge of the common features of a culture to make conclusions about an individual instead of analyzing behaviors specifically. Ethnocentrism means that a tendency exists within every individual to view his or her own culture as intrinsically better than other cultures (Victor, 2001, p. 36). When we grow up in a particular culture, not only does it shape our disposition and insert certain values and beliefs into our minds, but it also teaches us how to navigate within the environment. The older we grow and the deeper we immerse ourselves in one culture, the more likely we will see the world through a stained-glass window. Thus, it is natural for people to establish a sense of superiority regarding ones own culture over the other, generating a comfort zone in which we live and with which we are familiar. Moreover, self-reference criterion is employed in evaluating the surroundings. Nevertheless, this subconscious sense of cultural supremacy acts like a stumbling block in cross-cultural communication in that it forms a narrow-minded and defensive cultural identity that affects meaningful cultural exchange. In addition, it trains people into the mindset of drawing on a finalized conception to perceive other cultures. Just as cultural scholar and organizational sociologist Geert Hofstede, once said, Everyone is used to seeing the world from their own living rooms window; everyone has the tendency to view foreign cultures as strange while consider their own features as standard. This narrow mentality opens the door for future cultural imperialism, abasement, isolation and dependence which disrupts cross-cultural communication (Yang and Yi, 2006, p. 77). Consequently, with workers mindset of cultural prejudices and ethnocentrism there is a tendency that the employee who is culturally different suffers most of the time from bullying. Einarsen (1999) defines bullying as deliberate or unconsciously repeated actions and practices directed to one or more workers (victims) with the result of causing humiliation, offence, distress, and interference with performance on the job. Especially, bullying behaviors include: aggressive eye contact (glaring or meaningful glances), intimidating physical gestures (including finger pointing, slamming or throwing objects), yelling or screaming at the target, angry outbursts and temper tantrums, rude or hostile behavior toward the target, accusations of wrongdoing, spreading false rumors about the victim, breaching the victims confidentiality, and making unreasonable work demands on the target (Keashly, 1998). Einarsen (2000) identified two general types of bullying behaviors. Predatory bullying occurs where the victim has personally done nothing provocative to justify the bullying behaviors. In this case, the victim is an accident of a bullys demonstration of power. In contrast, conflict-related bullying occurs as result of highly escalated conflict (Einarsen, 2000). In some instances, the social climate at work creates conflict that escalates into harsh highly personified conflicts where the total destruction of the opponent is seen as the ultimate goal to be gained by parties (Van de Vliert, 1998). In such highly escalated conflict, aggressive behavior is a common tactic used to show resentment about perceived wrongdoings by ones opponents. Although many interpersonal struggles and conflicts are a natural part of human interactions, there is a thin line between interpersonal personal conflict and the aggressive behaviors that are labeled as bullying. In conflict-related bullying, oppone nts value as a person is denied leading to manipulation, retaliation elimination and destruction (Einarsen, 2000). Cultural Diversity Concept of Diversity The issue of addressing diversity is still a difficulty for organizations in this 21st century (Jackson Aparna 2010). Previously, diversity was defined as a characteristic of groups of two or more people and that commonly relates to demographic differences of one sort or another among members of a working team (McGrath, Berdahl, and Arrow, 1995).Van Knippenberg and Schippers (2007) define diversity as a characteristic of social grouping that reflects the degree to which objective or subjective differences exist between group members. Research in workplace diversity has quadrupled in the last few decades, yet, most of the outcomes demonstrate that diversity has paradoxical effects on team processes and outcomes (Joshi, Liao Roh, 2011, Jackson, Joshi and Erhardt, 2003, Milliken Martins 1996, Williams OReilly 1998). Diverse teams have been found to experience process and performance losses, as evidenced by less positive attitudes, reduced communication, and a higher likelihood of leaving a working team (Riordan Shore, 1997). Recent works have also identified the conditions, such as employee involvement that must be in place for diversity to generate organizational benefits (e.g. Yang Konrad, 2011). Cultural Diversity Double Effect and Dimensions Diversity is a subjective phenomenon, created by group members themselves who on the basis of their different social identities categorize others as similar or dissimilar: A group is diverse if it is composed of individuals who differ on a characteristic on which they base their own social identity [OReilly, Williams, Barsade 1998, p. 186]. Loden Rosener [1991] define diversity as characteristics which differentiate one group of people from another along with primary, secondary and tertiary dimensions as shown in the table below Table 1. Dimensions of Diversity Primary dimensions Secondary dimensions Tertiary dimensions à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Race à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Ethnicity à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Gender à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Age à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Disability à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Religion à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Culture à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Sexual orientation à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Thinking style à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Geographic origin à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Family status à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Lifestyle à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Economic status à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Political orientation à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Work experience à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Education à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Language à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Nationality à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Beliefs à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Assumptions à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Perceptions à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Attitudes à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Feelings à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Values à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Group norms Source: based on R. Rijamampinina, T. Carmichael, A Pragmatic and Holistic Approach to Managing Diversity. Problems and Perspectives in Management, 1/2005, p. 109. In sum, the presented above research debates that diversity might have positive and negative contributions to organizational functioning depending on its level. The most negative outcome of cultural and workplace diversity was found to be conflict (Jehn, Northcraft, Neale, 1999; Pelled, 1996; Olson, Parayitam Bao, 2007). Workgroup diversity is associated with conflict in teams, both task conflict and relationship conflict (Ayoko, Hartel, Callan, 2002, Chatman Flynn, 2001; Jehn, Chadwick, Thatcher, 1997; Jehn et al, 1999; Pelled, 1996; Pelled, Xin, Weiss, 2001). The conflict resulting from workgroup diversity has the potential to benefit performance if it generates the elaboration of more possibilities and perspectives in problem-solving discussions (van Knippenberg, De Dreu, Homan, 2004). The Meta-analytic research linking both task and relationship conflict to poorer performance have demonstrated that workgroup conflicts often do not result in positive outcomes (De Dreu Weingart, 2003). Additionally, new evidence emerging from another meta-analytical study (de Wit, Greer Jehn, 2011) suggests that while relationship and process conflict are negatively linked with performance, the effect of task conflict on outcomes is even more complex indicating that task conflict is only associated with positive outcomes when the link between task and relationship conflict is weak. There is substantial literature which argues that diversity has performance advantages over homogenous work structures [Cox, Lobel and MacLeod 1991]. First, multicultural organizations have an advantage in attracting and retaining the best talent. The capabilities of women and minorities offer a wider labor pool. Organizations that is able to attract and retain qualified minority group members and keep faith with them through fair and equitable career advancement treatments, gain competitive advantage and derive high quality human resources dividends. Second, a multicultural organization is better suited to serve a diverse external clientele in a more increasingly global market. Such organizations have a better understanding of the requirements of the legal, political, social, economic and cultural environments of foreign nations [Adler 1991]. Third, in research-oriented and hi-tech industries, the broad base of talents generated by a gender-and ethnic-diverse organization becomes a priceless advantage. Creativity thrives on diversity [Morgan 1989]. Fourth, multicultural organizations are found to be better at problem solving, possess better ability to extract expanded meanings, and are more likely to display multiple perspectives and interpretations in dealing with complex issues. Such organizations are less susceptible to groupthink. Fifth, multicultural organizations tend to possess more organizational flexibility, and are better able to adapt to changes. Women, for instance, are said to have higher tolerance for ambiguity than men [Rotter OConnell 1982]. Diversity has some drawbacks which moderate its significant advantages. In problem-solving situations, extraordinary costs in time and financial resources can negate the benefits of synergy, and can even degenerate into dysfunctional conflicts. Diversity does not fare as well under conditions of uncertainty and complexity which may lead to confusion and frustration. Diversity can make it harder to arrive at an agreement on a particular course of action, and can result in negative dynamics and cultural clashes that can create work disadvantages for women and minorities. Traditionally, cultural conflicts between majority and minority group members are usually resolved in favor of the majority groups. This, in turn, creates significant barriers to full participation by minority members in potentially conflict situations. In an analysis of 151 work groups, Tsui, Egan and OReilly [1992] found diversity to be associated with lower levels of psychological identification with group members w hich would tend to detract from overall performance and result in adverse effects on organizational measures of productivity, absenteeism and turnover. Homogenous groups have been reported to outperform culturally diverse groups especially where there are serious communication issues which make it more difficult for everybody to make optimal contributions to the group effort. Higher turnover and absenteeism are special problems identified with multi-cultural organizations. Several research studies since the 1960s have found women and other minorities to be consistently higher on absenteeism and turnover than their majority-member counterparts. In a study of twenty work units, OReilly, Caldwell and Barnett [1989] concluded that heterogeneity in groups was associated with lower levels of group social integration which resulted in higher individual turnover. They concluded that out-group members were more likely to leave the organization. Using a hypothetical company of 10,000 employees, Cox estimated that absentee differences attributable to multiculturalism would cost a company an average of three million dollars per year [Cox 1993, p. 25]. Milliken and Martins [1996] argued that diversity can affect an organizations functioning through four types of mediating variables. First, diversity can have affective consequences, such as lower organizational commitment or lower satisfaction, because people prefer interactions with similar others. Second, cognitive outcomes refer to an increase in creativity and innovation. Diversity can enhance a groups ability to gather and process information and therefore it could result in a greater creativity. Third, a diverse organizational workforce is a symbol of equality. These symbolic effects are important for an organizations reputation. And last, diversity also has clear implications on the communication process within a group or organization, i.e. communication effects. Milliken and Martins typology takes into account the fact the diversity can have both positive and negative effects on the functioning of organizations. Also Benschop [1999] argued that their typology provides a clea r view on the effects of diversity on an organizations functioning. Communication Role of Communication Openness Stuart Sillars(1998: pg 21) define communication as the giving, receiving or exchanging of information, opinions or ideas by writing, speech or visual means or any combination of the three so that the material communicated is completely understand by everyone concerned. Communication has been seen to assist organizations undergoing change by breaking down the resistance among workers and increasing their trust in the impending changes (Graham and LeBaron, 1994). Communication is also considered to be a means of resolving conflicts. When a group is meeting a goal, there are internal and external problems and one of the only ways to resolve the problem is via communication (Appelbaum et al., 1999). Communication is considered to be particularly beneficial when new recruits enter a work place. To make sense and to settle into the new environment, communication is considered to be particularly important (Jablin and Krone, 1987). Communication openness is defined as the ease of talking to each other in the group and the extent of understanding gained when people talk to other group members. According to Pelled et al. (1999), demographic diversity is linked with increased difficulties i

The History Of The Internet :: essays research papers

The History of the Internet   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Greg Rice   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   4/25/00 The Internet has update the computer and communications world like nothing before. The invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio, and computer set the stage for this unprecedented integration of capabilities. The Internet is at once a world-wide broadcasting capability, a mechanism for information distribution, and a medium for collaboration and interaction between individuals and their computers without regard for geographic location. The Internet represents one of the most successful examples of the benefits of sustained investment and commitment to research and development of information infrastructure. Beginning with the early research in packet switching, the government, industry and academia have been partners in evolving and deploying this exciting new technology. Over its fifteen year history, the Internet has functioned as a collaboration among cooperating parties. Certain key functions have been critical for its operation, not the least of which is the specification of the protocols by which the components of the system operate. To get to the origins of the Internet, we have to go back in time to 1957. You probably have no cause to remember, but it was International Geophysical Year, a year dedicated to gathering information about the upper atmosphere during a period of intense solar activity. Eisenhower announced in 1955 that, as part of the activities, the USA hoped to launch a small Earth orbiting satellite. Then Kremlin announced that it hoped to do likewise. Planning in America was focussed on a sophisticated three stage rocket, but in Russia they took a more direct approach, on 4 October 1957 the USSR launched (a 70 kgs bleeping sphere the size of a medicine ball) into Earth orbit. The effect in the United States was electrifying, since it seemed overnight to wipe out the feeling on invulnerability the country had enjoyed since the explosion of the first nuclear bomb thirteen years before. One of the immediate reactions was the creation of the Advanced Research Projects Agency within the Ministry of De fense. Its mission was to apply state-of-the-art technology to US defense and to avoid being surprised (again!) by technological advances of the enemy. It was also given interim control of the US satellite program until the creation of NASA in October 1958. ARPA became the technological think-tank of the American defense effort, employing directly a couple of hundred top scientists and with a budget sufficient for sub-contracting research to other top American institutions.

The Impacts Of Hazardous Waste On Nature Environmental Sciences Essay

Industrialization has caused a huge sum of risky compounds to come in our ecosystem and finally have a negative consequence on ecological diverseness, H2O handiness and human nutrient concatenation. The past century has seen worlds populate and present a big figure of risky chemical substances into the natural environments. Waste merchandises from industries, agricultural procedures, structural stuffs, medicine/drugs, e-wastes and pesticides which all destructively consequence the environment. The ambiance, biosphere and the hydrosphere, work in unison together to supply a habitable environment to the life being of the universe. Chemicals penetrate dirt, enter the air as emanations and the H2O as wastewater, finally poisoning aquatic beings and impacting the dirts ability to back up workss. Carbon dioxide which is the chief subscriber to the nursery consequence and clime alteration is besides caused by industrial emanations. Chlorofluorocarbons caused ozone depletion planet and over decennaries has caused an inflow of ultraviolent radiation into our planet. Pesticides and fertilisers from farms and gardens overflow into the H2O supply doing eutrophication, the physique up of algae in the river and lake systems doing decease to aquatic beings and doing it impossible to last. There are besides some unsafe chemicals which enter the dirt and groundwater doing familial defects in workss and beings doing it difficult to last and reproduce, therefore doing extinctions of certain workss and carnal species. A survey conducted in Southeast Ukraine found that 0.8 % of the Dnepropetrovsk Region remains portion of the one time 100 % natural ecosystem. This part is known for its huge supply of natural resources. Due to provide industries populated and began mining and fabrication, utilizing and huge sum of resources and bring forthing a big supply of waste, accordingly destructing the environing environment. Hazardous stuffs in ambiance, dirts, flora and H2O were badly contaminated and trials were conducted to find the badness of the issue. Gritsan, NP. , Babiy, AP. , 2000 found In Dnepropetrovsk Region, the release and composing of industrial emanations caused the hapless air quality. In respects to the dirt it was found countries non populated by industries where clean and pollution free, whereas the countries like Dnepropetrovsk and Dneprodzerzhinsk which had a high concentration of environmentally degrading industries consisted of chemicals such as Fe, Cu, Zn, lead and fluoride and where found in high concentrations. † It was determined that concentrations of fluorides in workss turning near big or specific industrial companies were up to 15 times higher than normal. † ( Gritsan, NP. , Babiy, AP. , 2000 ) Food is a necessity for endurance and get downing from hapless disposal or industrial waste we are faced with a job that produces a concatenation of events stoping up in the blood supply of developing fetuss and the blood and tissues of kids, grownups and wildlife species. Man-made risky compounds are come ining animate beings through exposure, inspiration or ingestion. These risky compounds produced by industrial procedures accumulate up the nutrient ironss, inappropriate disposal and leeching from waste and landfill sites and stop up in the natural environment and finally in the manufacturers and consumers. Worlds are the top of the nutrient concatenation and hence consume the overall accretion of risky compounds. A study conducted by Toegepast Natuurwetenschappelijk Onderzoek ( Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research: TNO ) in the Netherlands shows that many of the different types of risky compounds exist in human blood indicating that worlds are exposed to these chemicals. Exposure can be through additives to consumer merchandises or through nutrient merchandises. Since many of these chemicals have a lipophillic nature they bioaccumulate in the nutrient concatenation. The TNO group tested manmade chemicals and found that many of th e compounds where nowadays in nutrients at a concentration of 0.1 to 10 ng/g. The World Wildlife Fund ( WWF ) study Chain of Contamination the Food Link found besides that the most of import exposure path for many of semisynthetic chemicals was through a bioaccumulation. Chemicals being DDT ( DDT ) a man-made pesticide and Polychlorinated Biphenyls ( PCBs ) which are organochlorine found in early industrial merchandises. DDT and PCBs are passed through diet. WWF conducted trials on organochlorine, polychlorinated Biphenyls, brominated fire retardent, perfluorinated chemicals, phthalates, unreal musks, Alkylphenols isomers of nonylphenol and organotins and found all these risky compounds to be present in nutrient merchandises across seven different states. The trials provide an penetration into the earnestness of this planetary job. Food being one concern, H2O handiness is another major concern. Many workss and animate beings need freshwater to last and risky compounds are come ining waterways and polluting fresh water, doing it unsafe and unsuitable for ingestion. Slavek Vasak, Rianne Brunt and Jasper Griffioen in their study â€Å" Arsenic in Groundwater † research maps of groundwater taint based specifically on ; happening of no fresh H2O, high flouride, high arsenous anhydride, high nitrate and the pollution from assorted beginnings. In their research they found many states to hold contaminatd H2O but really diffucult to nail less developed countries around the universe with the same job. Many states rely on groundwater for thier H2O supply and do non hold the resources and fundss to develop ways to take the chemicals from the H2O and are forced to devour contaminated H2O. Hazardous compounds have been used since the beginning of industralisation and it is merely in the past decennary or two where the effects of these compounds have affected our natural ecosytems and manner of life and still their full affect on iving things may non yet be known. New chemicals and merchandises are being manufactured mundane all in which may do injury to the the environment. E-waste is a authoritative illustration of recent merchandises incorporating types of chemcals which are harmful to the environment. In 2005 an estimated 697,000 metric tons of electronic and electrical equipment was consumed while 313,000 metric tons was disposed. ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.environment.gov.au/settlements/waste/electricals/index.html, 12/05/10 ) E-waste contains risky stuffs including quicksilver, lead, arsenic brominated fire retardents, Be and Cd. If non desposed right potentailly all the compounds present can leach into natural ecosystems and cause terrible nowadays and future jobs. Australia and the universe recognize they are faced with a planetary job in respects to risky wastes. They strive to restrict and forestall any amendss on the natural environment. In 1992 â€Å" The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal † ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.environment.gov.au/settlements/chemicals/hazardous-waste/conventions.html 14/05./10 ) was implemented and in 2002 was sanctioned by 151 states including Australia. Australia signed the Basel Convention in 1992. The Convention is implemented in Australia by the Hazardous Waste ( Regulation of Exports and Imports ) Act 1989. ( http: //www.environment.gov.au/settlements/chemicals/hazardous-waste/conventions.html, 14/05/10 ) . It forced states to environmentally pull off risky wastes in a safe manner when importation and exporting. In implicating the minimisation of risky waste production, supplying disposal installations, cut downing the motion of risky waste, pull offing waste with respects to the environment and prevent and punish illegal traffic of waste. In visible radiation of the above there are options at a local graduated table where concerns and persons can forestall risky waste jobs in many ways ; risky compounds can be recycled, diminish the usage of risky stuffs in production, better labeling and record maintaining of stuffs, better storage and supply safer transit methods The environment is a complex system made up on interrelated ecosystems and any changes can do dramatic impacts on present and future environments. The impact of worlds is besides complex we live a complex life style and as we progress technologically and as a species we do it at the disbursal of the environment. The extinction of species along the concatenation may intend the loss of utile familial stuff or life salvaging malignant neoplastic disease drugs or safer options to the unsafe chemicals in usage at the minute. In order to battle this job we need to weigh out the hazard and benefits of a munificent life style and happen options to go on progressing without destructing the natural environment.

Automatic Clothesline

Bulacan State University Sarmiento Campus â€Å"Automatic Clothesline† In partial fulfilment in research methodology Submitted by: Mark Cyrill R. Manzon BSIT-3B Submitted to: Mr. Pedro Abanador Instructor Submitted by: Mark Cyrill R. Manzon BSIT-3B Submitted to: Mr. Pedro Abanador Instructor CHAPTER I PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND Introduction In today’s present era of the technology was evolved more household choirs was converted to a modern ways. It was a long time ago that the people use a lot of efforts and dedication for their works even there’s a way to lessen their task every day.Automated Clothesline gives more opportunities the client or the user to give a convenience on their daily tasks. In this case study, I intend to conduct an intensive research that would help the people and let them in modern technology. In today’s present era of technology, the mobile sector has seen some of the biggest and most amazing breakthroughs in the technology industr y in the last few decades. It was not long ago that the notion of having a handheld device to communicate with others and access data on the go was the whim of sci-fi fans. Not so anymore.The arrival of smartphones ushered in a new era of intelligent innovation and unparalleled connectivity. Mobile  code division multiple access  (CDMA) technology has evolved rapidly over the past few years. Since the start of this millennium, a standard mobile device has gone from being no more than a simple two-way  pager  to being a  mobile phone,  GPS navigation device, an embedded  web browser  and  instant messaging  client, and a  handheld game console. Many experts argue that the future of computer technology rests in  mobile computing  with  wireless networking (3G and 4G Networking).In this case study, I intend to conduct an intensive research that would hint the advantages of 3G and 4G networking in terms of mobile technology issue so that I would immensely stu dy about â€Å"Mobile technology†Ã‚  is the technology used for cellular communication. Mobile computing by way of tablet computers, cell phone is becoming more popular. Mobile technology is available on the 3G and 4G networks. Statement of the Problem General Problem: How does the mobile technology dominant and useful to operate the 3G and 4G Networks. Specific Problem: . How may mobile technology effectiveness be identified as: 2. 1 Portability to use in different places. 2. 2 Computer like abilities to store and retrieve files. 2. 3 Capability to access in internet. 2. 4 Price flexibility. 2. 5 Very useful apps for day to day routine. 2. What gigantic features 3G and 4G networks can provide to be dominant as: 3. 6 Wide variety of voice and data services. 3. 7 Operate on a core IP (Internet Protocol) network 3. 8 Ability to  support mobile rates of 100 Mbps, and fixed rates of 1Gbps. . 9   High-speed  packet  transmissions or burst traffic in the channels. 3. 10 Adv ancement of communication devices such (voice, text and video messaging). 3. 11 peer-to-peer  (P2P)  file sharing  applications Significance of the Study The importance of studying the 3G and 4G networking in mobile technology is how it promises to change the way users interact with resources and applications, moving services away from desktop and laptop computers and how would it be more suitable for the user in the coming year. Scope and LimitationThe purpose of the study is essentially in the development of the mobile technology and its 3G and 4G Networks. The same codes used in the  2G-3G  networks will be applied to future 4G mobile or wireless networks, the detection of very short bursts will be a serious problem due to their very poor partial correlation properties. Recent study has indicated that traditional multi-layer network architecture based on the  Open Systems Interconnection  (OSI) model may not be well suited for 4G mobile network, where transactions o f short packets will be the major part of the traffic in the channels.As the packets from different mobiles carry completely different channel characteristics, the receiver should execute all necessary  algorithms, such as channel estimation, interactions with all upper layers and so on, within a very short time to make the detections of each packet flawless and even to reduce the clutter of traffic. Method of the Study The respondent of the study will include programmer, developer, market analyst, mobile store owner, and mobile users. The study will be conducted from January to march 2013.

Atonement Ian Mc Ewan Essay Example

Atonement Ian Mc Ewan Essay Example Atonement Ian Mc Ewan Essay Atonement Ian Mc Ewan Essay Essay Topic: A Woman Killed With Kindness Twelfth Night A radical revolt, questioning the notion of a scent. What we have In our discourse is not simply that language reflects a particular truth; the sign doesnt refer to a fixed kind of object. Language Is composed of a variety of signs which continually refer to other signs. To differ substitution of signs. The infinite differing of meaning = difference. If the truth is questioned, the concept of humanism is also questioned; it reflects the values off particular historical point. This is called discursively constructive = SST that is created, but does not pre-exist. Shift from universal to particular values: everything Is constructed and Is not pre- existing. There is ethical concern is Atonement. Its a post modernist novel. We move from fiction to metrification always systematically. Metrification is dealing with how fiction is produced. Something textual its not an essence, constructed and divided. The distinction between fiction and metrification is blurred. The fictionally of the world is questioned. Intellectuality becomes also Important allusions to other authors. The language citations are used and show how constructed and how artificial English literature Is. It Is called In the post-modernist era (Linda Hutchison), a parody = referring to the sat with a difference. History Is seen as very Toll Ana prominent moving away Trot revolutionize tendencies. They want to reemphasize the importance of historical detail. Novels are often a way of questioning the process in which we can write about history. Its not a historical novel in the conventional sense, but its a novel in order to prompt ourselves to ask the question about the perspective of history. In Atonement is showed how difficult it is to reconstruct the totality of the war. Questioning of writing history, historiographer writing history is some kind of story writing. This novel explicitly shows that its constructed from reality. It shows the different phases of writing a book. Emphasis on the ex-centric: emphasis on ethnic minorities, women After the war, many writers start to write about groups that start to be ignored. There is no notion of a centre and the centre cannot speak from everybody. Modernism privileges things that are fluid and unfixed. Its often difficult to distinguish between the two literary movements. We focus on how fiction is close to reality. Blurring of science and fiction. Ms Anew He was born in 1948 and studied at the University of East Anglia in Norwich which is till famous for the course of creative writing. This is a course for apprentice writers. The novelists found at this course are Malcolm Bradbury novels about campus life. A great number of writers in the UK have graduated from his creative writing course, including Ian Ms Anew. In the early period, there was a focus on the bizarre: The Comfort of Strangers: Story of young honeymooners in Venice. They face a danger of meeting an older couple until finally they are trapped in the house who are sexual perverts and who eventually killed them. Later, he became concerned with the notion of good and evil. Black Dogs (1992) deals with the world after the collapse of the Berlin Wall. Black Dogs is a symbol that fascism is still with us; they are the Nazi dogs who used to torture the prisoners. Atonement 2 Saturday (2005) one day in the life of a neurosurgeon, who is attacked during the day and on the very same day, he has to perform an operation on the man who attacked him -> moral dilemma. There allusions of the post 9/1 1 and terrorism. How do we have to react towards such situations? The Gothic note of the novel is adapted to the contemporary period. The Gothic was a mind of style that developed in the 18th century which reintroduced the irrational in contrast to the philosophical enlightenment of romanticism. It is prominent in the novels by Jane Austin (Northerner Abbey, Emma), Bronze (Withering Heights). Atonement is in the same tradition. At the beginning of Atonement, there is a quotation from Northerner Abbey, Ian Ms Anew questions the rationality and the social structure of the British society. Atonement In modernism, there is a preoccupation with shifting points of view and with morality. This preoccupation with ethics is typically British. There is always this difficulty of seeing, because the weather is too bright. Historiographer metrification of the second World War. Story analysis. The first chapter is about a play written by Bryony. The beginning is ir onic because the play reflects the wider plot and shows what is going to happen to Bryony herself. Bryony is interested in gothic prose, she is like Mrs. Mooreland, unable to distinguish what is gothic and what is not. The end of Britons play is characterized with a happy ending and its what is certainly not going to happen in Atonement. Bryony studies ere mothers face because she wants her to approve of her play > study of detail. Bryony wants to control people, Just like Jane Statutes Emma. She is so meticulous; she is Just like the general of an army unlike her sister who is closed in her room among books. Bryony is a contradiction because she likes order and she likes secrets. What she enjoys are very insignificant things. There is a great emphasis placed on her sense of order. She did not have it in her to be cruel ironic passage of the book, she doesnt realize that shes cruel. You can be cruel without even knowing it; its something shes ongoing to discover at the end of the book. Bryony is an artist. The book is about being a writer. The young Bryony is the centre of the attention but we can sense an omniscient narrator telling the story. l en trials AT Ordeal Bryony play Is centralize as a melodrama, exactly want is going to happen to her. 1945- very conservative social background. Thinking of divorce isnt popular. The story of the sister is of a failed marriage like an echo. P. 13 there is already a conflict between the characters about the leading roles of the play. Lola wants to have the leading role and Bryony eventually decides that she is ongoing to be the director of the play. She is very authoritarian. The difficulties of putting out a play PROBLEM OF MEDICATION. Chapter 2 We are introduced to Cecilia. We have an omniscient narrator who explores what goes in the mind of the character. Cilias estate is a kind of paradise. Being expelled from the Tallish estate is like being expelled from paradise. Emphasis on the notion of gaze, look > looking doesnt always mean to understand. P. 21 Another literary allusion Claries by Richardson. This story is about love. The world of Atonement is the world of books. The first chapters take place in the library, something unusual in post modernism. The novel is about social values, transgressing the rules : Cecilia would like to have her independence. Cecilia is quite bold, she has much more freedom; she is wild and in that sense she is opposed to Bryony. Cecilia has feelings of attachment for Robbie but she wants to remain independent. Memories of the war are already present in the first chapters. They have a symbolic value. The vase is symbolic of the war, its something shes always been very attached to. Everything in this novel is associated with the war. . 27 He is in a very difficult position, he is in between two classes in a very structured society which is rather tight. He is somewhat different from everybody else. Roadie wants to study malice, Just Like In ten l orals AT Areola, winner ten woman falls in love with a medical doctor. There is a omniscient perspective but we are in Cilias mind. There is some kind of tension between them and she doesnt want to acknowledge the fact that she is in love with him. Restatement of different positions in the society. She is in a very difficult position herself, because she went to Cambridge. She didnt have good grades ( different from Robbie) and she is in a position of inferiority. The tension of the vase is in between them, because its going to break. The book is full of echoes because the vase is going to break again a second time at another part of the novel. It is a symbol of kindness and all sort of things. One can read in this breaking vase a proliferation of Robbers and Cilias relationship. Emphasis on light. Because its supposed to be written by Bryony who is trying to imitate Virginia Wolfs style. Its almost a pastiche. There is a reminiscence of the stream of consciousness in Virginia Wolf, we know hats going on in Cilias mind. When Bryony receives the rejection letter from the horizon, its quite similar. P. 30 The sense of being not willing to surrender. She is in a furry. As she climbed into the water in her underwear insignificant detail, like in Virginia Wolfs Solid Objects. Little details are going to cause a disaster. The Trials of Rubella, the trials of the heroin who later has to atone what she has done. Rubella is an opera by Richard Strauss and it is extremely refined, its about how husband and wife are finally reconciled and enjoyed a peaceful life of domesticity. Richard Strauss was a major composer of the 20th century and he was the last on to be a romantic. His latest compositions are about death and transfiguration but they are in an extremely romantic style. 1949 is very late indeed ; because there was a lot of experimental music by other composers. Medieval castle gothic allusions. Emphasis on nature. Like in Northerner Abbey, there is a mistake of perception. Its a gothic and post modern perspective. Do we have the right to make such mistakes? I Nils novel Is written Day ten 010 Bryony Ana It could not De peduncles ruling near lifetime. Metrification. P. 8 stream of consciousness, limited view. Robbie is present as a rapist. Bryony likes t o rearrange reality, typical of writers. But do writers have the right to do p. 39 gazing gazing doesnt give the ability to understand. Unambiguous sunlight emphasis on light but light doesnt seem to help. Irony because she things shes getting it wrong when shes not getting it wrong. She is initiated to adult life and its the beginning of her career as a writer. P. 40 hidden observer like herself sense of perspective. Is she not becoming the villain? Can we say that a point of view is always legitimate? After all, its not all relative, its not a matter of playful reference, its also about ethics. There did not have to be a moral thats what she thought at the time. However, the fact that the Atonement novel is made of divisions questions this. She is obviously making a mistake as not to commit herself. She writes in the style of V. Wolf, its not completely neutral, but she doesnt assume that all you need to do is to write about the same thing described from different perspectives but dismissing the concept of values this is her mistake as a writer. The voice of the late Bryony is aware that she was conceited. Its the wrong genre like if drama wasnt appropriate to what she has written. Metrification again. Paul Marshall is introduced to her. From the start, he is depicted as someone very old-baring, someone who is aware of his importance. The villain of the gothic tale. Paul Marshall is interested in Lola. There is a conversation and hes talking about himself all the time. He is talking also about the Rainbow ammo (=love) bar. Shes not mistaken about the fact that Marshall is stupid. She learns that Robbie has been invited by her brother to have diner with the family and shes upset about it. Chapter 5 Lola is again a possible literary allusion. Lola Nabob, Elliot, represents sexuality. Ian Ms Anew wants to show that. There is a conversation between Paul Marshall, the children and Lola for the first time. A literary allusion to Hamlet wanly suggests Tanat you neednt read to much because you start to think different things and that you begin to behave like a snob, like Paul Marshal Chapter 6 Perspective of the mother, reminiscent of Mrs. Dally, p. 68 shes a little bit like Mrs. Dally, she can no longer procreate. Shes missing the comfort of having a child to take care of. The crisis of middle age and the regret of no a nger having children, consciously an imitation of Virginia Wolf. Chapter 7 Bryony is persuaded that she has her great talent developing. P. 2 pastoral ideal emphasis on the nature, rather than on the rational- typical of gothic. Emphasis on perspective. There is an attempt of Bryony to imitate the expressionistic style of Virginia Wolf. P. 76 come back like a leitmotiv used in different contexts used between Cecilia and Robbie and Cecilia and her sister, like come back from a nightmare. So she was not able to come back! Chapter 8 Focuses on Robbie. He is in his study, where youre going to find medical and literary kooks. P. 82 Addends poems major poet of the 20th century. It is important because it has to do with the destruction of the values of Europe. All these magazines really existed. T. S Eliot is another poet. ( on the waste land? ). This is an echo when Bryony receives a rejection from another magazine. He lives in a world that is full of books. Its a novel about fiction, something that the movie couldnt reproduce because its another media. Allusion to Shakespearean comedies Twelfth Night a very dark comedy in which the main character is fooled by everybody and he is unhappily in love. At the end, we eave an Impression Tanat everyone Is nappy except t ml. This applies to Robbie. Its textual. Other authors: Freud p. 6 Robbie is unease but he is free of any sense of inappropriateness. He is very spontaneous and doesnt feel awkward of being in between two situations. Relationship of kindness between mother and son. Very intense feelings are expressed very economically. when I look for my face in my spoon, I see only you. P. 92 he thought of himself in 1962 Robbie wont live in 1962. Science religion-literature = three differ ent ways to see the world. Something you cant detect in the movie. It took Bryony a second to ruin an entire life. P. 103 Bryony feels different from the rest of the family, shes less of a conformist. They are going to have a diner and face a heat wave. Heat wave // sexual. Bryony hands in the letter to Cecilia who asks her if she has read it has! Bryony is an illustration of the role of the artist in the society. Chapter Ten of course she p. 113 Feeling guilty is a major theme in the novel. The writing of this book is a form of atonement. At the end of the book, Bryony is getting more and more sick = physical atonement. Atonement isnt going to resurrect people. Not only is she mistaken of what has happened, she is also thinking of how profitable its going to be for her writing. She is cruel without even knowing. With the letter some cruelness has been introduced. She thinks that theres a monster in the house echo of Northerner Abbey, gothic. Order is not always a good thing because its imposing SST wrong on the society. P seen could never Torture Roadie Nils Lusting mina I nerve Is good Ana evil and she is determined that the source of evil is Robbie himself. She tells Lola about it. Lola enjoys the power of being the centre of attention. Shes very selfish. There is a degree of fascination. the mans a maniac! they are thinking of committing something that will destroy Robbers and Cilias relationship. They are very naive. The fountain episode is very important and shes creating stories about this fountain. There is no doubt that the climax has to take place in the library. P. 122 the atmosphere is an imitation of the gothic novel. what she saw must have been shaped in part by what she already knew, or believed she knew. She saw them emphasis on gaze. Books are put in parallel with over-anxious imagination. Bryony misinterprets the situation, she is reshaping the world according to her imagination; then she leaves the room. Chapter 11. Diner p. 127 has England even been hotter? Robbie compares the hot weather to sexuality. There is a lot of gazing in the whole novel, especially at the diner; however, there is a feeling of discomfort. P. 128 Marshall speaking. All the rules change allusion to sexual heat but its also and equivalent of the transgressions of the rules of the whole family. P. 131 We are in the mind of Robbie who is sure of his relationship with Cecilia; direct quota tion from Shakespeare but Robbie is wrong about it. . 137 Another perspective of the library scene quite sensuous. The supposed attacked was in fact a moment of pleasure. Ironic parallels : Bryony also thinks shes reaching another stage in her life. Importance AT ten Moving moment of togetherness; the only moment of togetherness that theyre going to have. The notion of witnessing Robbie has the impression that God is watching them like a marriage contract. Religious aspect. P. 142 The twins decide to leave the diner. The leave a letter and they are escaping. P. 144 importance of the number of words in common with seeing. Two mistakes : Interpretation Bryony Teaching Robbie : giving the letter to Bryony and to participate in the search. We are in the mind of the wife, a typical Victorian woman. She doesnt agree to give money to her husband to be educated. She is aware that there is going to be a war, that there will be a massacre. There is a great number of echoes, including characterization. Robbie is a hybrid because he has been educated, he has been to Cambridge. He has humble origins but doesnt have the accent of lower people. He doesnt really fit among other soldiers. Emily doesnt like Jacks attitude because she thinks hes too generous. Robbie was manipulated by the British society. There is a rigidity of classes. Chapter 13. Focus on Bryony. P. 157 She is excited of this situation in terms of fiction writing. She is exhibiting the selfishness of the artist. Steam of is it good or not good to be a writer? Misconception of reality. She feels that she is the next on Robbers raping list. P. 158 Bryony is misinterpreting reality. She is mistaken. She has a crush on Robbie as a very young girl. He taught her how to swim. How could someone so benevolent become a villain in the wide imagination of a child? nothing of that sort would happen in England Northerner Abbey it did happen.

The modern business environment and embracing modern technologies for further economic gain The WritePass Journal

The modern business environment and embracing modern technologies for further economic gain 1. Introduction The modern business environment and embracing modern technologies for further economic gain 1. Introduction1.1 What is the problem?1.2 What is the purpose of this study?1.2.1 What are the SME’s barriers to entry?1.2.2 Existing benefits achieved by SME’s1.2.3 SME’s adoption of technology2. Literature Review2.1 The UK market2.2 Barriers2.2.1 E-commerce growth and development2.2.1 The Role of UK Government in the growth of e-commerce2.2.3 Perceived barriers to e-commerce adoption2.2.4 E-Readiness2.3 Benefits2.3.1 Economic Benefits2.3.2 Illusions and Promises2.3.3 Do or Die: Internationalisation2.3.4 M-Commerce2.3.5 Benefits for UK SME’s2.4   E-commerce adoption2.4.1   Levels of adoption2.4.2 Stages of adoption2.4.3   Influencing factors of adoption3.   Methodology   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3.1 Philosophy3.2 Qualitative V Quantitative3.3 Approaches3.4 Strategies3.5 Choices of methodReference ListRelated 1. Introduction 1.1 What is the problem? In recent times, there has been an intense underlying issue regarding the amount of businesses within the UK that are not adapting to the modern business environment and embracing modern technologies for further economic gain. Noted by the office for National statistics (2009) that 76% of the UK’s business claimed to have a website, yet only 15% had completed transactions online. Furthermore, the issue lies deep within the fundamental business characteristics and the way in which businesses choose to operate and compete, leading to online sales via websites known as e-commerce, reaching  £115bn in 2009. Figures from the same study also demonstrate that the predicament shows no sign of slowing as e-commerce sales increased by 23% from 2008 to 2009, showing a rise of  £22bn, suggesting that many businesses are missing the chance to join the online market place whereby opportunities for the growth of a business appear limitless (Scupola, 2003). Rosenbloom (2004, cited in Harrison Waite, 2005) proposed that e-commerce technology is now viewed as an integral part of marketing channels and distribution systems. However the UK government acknowledges that there is a slow uptake of e-commerce in SME’s, particularly among micro businesses (UK Online, 2002) whereby many of the UK’s SME’s may be left behind, leaving the larger companies to dominate the e-commerce world (Harrison et al, 2005). Furthermore, the issue is emphasised through the suggestions of Julia (2002) stating that small and medium-sized businesses (SME’s) make substantial contributions to national economies and account for an estimated 80% of global economic growth (Julia et al, 2002). This document aims to identify the numerous relevant factors preventing the assimilation of e-commerce and the capitalisation of its benefits within the UK’s SME’s.   Conversely, the research also attempts to outline the previous benefits founded with its adoption and the current levels of practice within the recognised SME’s. Such known benefits may provide motivation and incentives for the apprehensive SME’s who are failing to embrace the advances in technology, as well as offering a range of potential opportunities for any traditional organisation to engage in the e-commerce transition whereby a business can ‘dominate the electronic channel and thereby control access to customers and set terms of trade’ (Walters Lancaster, 1999, p800 cited in Harrison, 2005). Following similar research in more economically developed countries such as USA, Canada and Australia appear to have made more progress as they have become the global leaders in e-commerce assimilation (Norton, 2000, cited in Quayle, 2002). This investigation will discuss whether these barriers and benefits still exist or that SME’s have adapted to the modern business environment and have effectively engaged in e-commerce. Consequently, have further beneficial or detrimental factors emerged and influenced integration of internet based transactions. 1.2 What is the purpose of this study? For the purpose of this investigation, the term e-commerce will be used in the true sense of its concept and not divulge into the notion of electronic business (e-business). It will however include activities such as electronic mail (e-mail) and mobile commerce (m-commerce) whereby their fundamentals coincide with the essential aspects of e-commerce. The primary purpose of this investigation is to identify the barriers in the UK’s SME’s in their adoption of e-commerce.   These identified barriers may differ from those faced in other countries, regardless of economic development.   In addition, this paper will study the benefits found once the e-commerce transition has taken place and how they may have become advantageous to any developing SME.   It also aims to analyse the results and test them against the findings established within other international SME’s. Throughout this analysis, the paper will thoroughly investigate and critique the growth of the UK’s SME’s and how e-commerce has enabled it to do so. 1.2.1 What are the SME’s barriers to entry? This study aims to investigate the way in which SME’s perceive e-commerce and devise a catalogue of factors that provide obstacles for its adoption.   In doing so, the author aims to bring these issues in view of both business and governmental organisations, with the focus on those assisting SME’s to further contribute to both the local and global economy. Whether these issues exist in reality or are just ignorant perceptions, the fact of the matter is that these issues still appear to hinder the assimilation of e-commerce within SME’s. Barriers to adoption can occur for numerous reasons and many issues are inter-related, however, they will not be restricted to only the following factors: INTERNAL Start up costs Technical knowledge/computer literacy Access to technology Security of technology EXTERNAL Business partner(s) access to technology Lack of governmental support (Kshetri, N, 2007) In addition to the primary aim, the secondary goal is to try and locate relationships between these barriers and whether or not they have a direct correlation with the demographic and financial features of the external environment. Furthermore, it will also attempt to identify any linkages between previous barriers and the technological affluence or perception of SME’s directors as previous research has shown that the owner’s opinion of e-commerce has a major influence on its possible implementation, and if so, what benefits does it bring. 1.2.2 Existing benefits achieved by SME’s This investigation will recognise the major benefits already achieved by SME’s who have utilised the capabilities of engaging in e-commerce. These benefits may need to be analysed by budding SME’s or MSME’s (micro, small medium enterprises) or any developing business for that matter, in order to fully understand, make relevant and integrate e-commerce successfully within their organisation. This investigation can also be used for governmental organisations to utilise e-commerce as an adaption of its services that supply SME’s, which will in turn provide benefits to both stakeholders involved. This may potentially lead to a future development of electronic infrastructure, which will in turn greater it’s usage and by virtue of EOS (economies of scale) will lead to an increased level of economic efficiency. This study will address those benefits but will not be constrained by such: Increased audience levels (market reach) Reduce cycle time Higher levels of turnover Increased productivity Lower marketing and distribution costs Competitive advantage Increased profit margin New business opportunities (Daniel Wilson, 2002) These existing benefits will provide a basis to identify any trends with the demographic data found, along with its barriers. This information will also be examined in comparison to the technological perception of the directors of a given enterprise in order to understand whether or not the attitude of the director directly influences the benefits achieved, similar to that of the director’s perceptions and previous success within the business environment. 1.2.3 SME’s adoption of technology In order to grasp the usage of technology within SME’s, the author has made efforts to discover more about businesses that have embraced technology and how they may be putting to use the advantages of the internet. The levels of adoption and the processes put in place in order to assimilate, as well as the trends of usage are all imperative to the overall validity of the investigation. Although the author earlier conveyed that the study will concentrate on the true definitive characteristics of e-commerce, in order to fully investigate the usage and perceptions of e-commerce, the study must consider aspects of e-business to fully identify and understand the correlation of internet usage and the potential benefits it possesses. Furthermore, the study will advance deeper and discuss whether or not linkages exists in the technological affluence, literacy or perception of the SME’s director and the benefits and barriers achieved through the adoption of e-commerce. 2. Literature Review 2.1 The UK market Throughout the investigation, the author noticed that the majority of research was conducted in more economically developed countries (MEDC’s), with the United States being most popular. However, this study aims to conduct the majority of its research within the UK environment as well as delving into the international and emerging markets whereby the growth of e-commerce is still primarily at an elemental level. Although that particular research is valid, it merely aims to provide a contrasting statistical viewpoint to that found in the UK. Studies by Benjamin (2000) and Pulley and Sessa (2001) indicate that there is a limited amount of analysis of e-commerce in SME’s, however there is a wider acceptance on a number of factors. In particular, SME’s who are determined to achieve a competitive advantage require an improvement in levels of e-commerce and the need to develop credible approaches for its implementation.   Further studies conducted by Standing and Sto ckdale (2003) emphasised further issues of concern whereby the ‘motivation for adoption and use of e-commerce by SME’s are overlooked and underestimated’ (Standing et al, 2003. p;2). Further issues within the same study indicated concern surrounding categorised groupings of SME’s and their perceptions to adoption. In contrast to the UK market for e-commerce, in developing areas of the world, including countries such as Egypt, research has show that ‘governments have been eager to apply the emerging information and communication technologies to join the world in the development and realization of the digital economy’ (Kamel and Hussein, 2002. P;2). Therefore, e-commerce growth in Egypt and other developing countries may decide to utilise the research and examples of that in the UK in order to greater the adoption levels within SME’s. Conversely, UK governments may choose to analyse the way in which developing countries introduce e-commerce and its technological infrastructure in order to fully understand what factors they provide as benefits or barriers. Following the studies on the international and emerging markets, the author aims to reemphasise that this research is merely conveyed as a contrasting viewpoint in order to further understand the way in which e-commerce adoption in the UK is both perceived and achieved. 2.2 Barriers 2.2.1 E-commerce growth and development Originally, electronic commerce was identified as the facilitation of commercial transactions electronically, using technologies such as EDI (Electronic Data Interchange) and EFT (Electronic Funds Transfer) in the 1970’s. Furthermore, increasing developments in technology in the 1980’s lead to the creation of ATM’s (Automated Teller Machines) and telephone banking which were also noticed as forms of electronic commerce. It wasn’t until 1990 that the development of the World Wide Web and the modern day internet also known as the ‘6th Continent’ by Yongxiang,   that the term coined e-commerce was specifically designated to the exchange transactions which take place over the internet, including buying and selling of information, service or goods (Schniederjans, 2002). Since the conceptualisation of e-commerce, researches have studied the barriers that exist which may prevent its adoption within SME’s. Whether these barriers physically exist in reality or whether they are merely a perception, the facts remains that they still provide an obstacle for e-commerce assimilation within the UK’s SME’s. Studies conducted by Cragg and King (1997, cited in Shah et al, 2000) discovered that the strongest inhibiting factors to SME adoption include lack of ICT knowledge, lack of managerial time and limited financial resources. All of which factors appear to apply to resistance to change and possibly suggest an underestimation of the potential benefits to its adoption. Further studies by Dowler and Lawrence-Slater (1998) highlight ‘technological phobia’ and ‘no perceived benefits’ as realistic barriers. Since these studies were conducted at an elemental stage of e-commerce, further investigations have been carried out since. Investigations undertaken by Marshall and Mckay (2002) found that in recent times, SME’s are reluctant to adopt due to difficulties identifying and measuring costs, benefits and risks associated with IT adoption and investment. Furthermore, research conducted by Edwards (2007) and Hudson et al (2007) indicated that the lack of strategy for evaluation was also a major inhibiting factor to adoption.   Although all studies identified provide valid and important evidence, it is the most recent information that supplies the most pertinent, as it considers factors within the modern business environment in comparison to those noted within the primary stages of e-commerce development. 2.2.1 The Role of UK Government in the growth of e-commerce In order to fully investigate the role that government plays in the adoption of e-commerce, the author aims to find out whether they are an enabler of its adoption or a characteristic of its barriers. A study by Keindl (2000) portrays that SME’s are generally unwilling to develop e-commerce strategies or to change their current business models, despite the government introducing campaigns such as the CW2000 project, a European funded project to encourage internet adoption amongst SME’s in the West Midlands of the UK. As discussed earlier, there remain a variety of barriers to the adoption of e-commerce and regardless of the government initiatives, certain barriers still exist and are chiefly found within the internal features of an organisation. Kshetri (2007), stating that start up costs and the relevance of e-commerce within a particular SME to be key factors in its adoption. Furthermore, additional research by Beckinsdale and Levy (2004) reported that neither pressure from competitors within the same business environment or governmental initiatives provides any pressure upon the adoption of e-commerce, and that the chief reasoning for its assimilation is concerned with customer satisfaction. As a result of these findings, certain infrastructure should be implemented in order enable to the transition of adoption as it appears that governmental frameworks are unable to do so. 2.2.3 Perceived barriers to e-commerce adoption Early studies by Tonatzky and Klein (1982) found that innovation is more likely to be adopted when it is compatible with an individual’s job responsibility and value system. Although this study portrays a vague acceptance of innovation, it is definitely applicable to e-commerce as an innovative entity and its adoption and application within a value system, or for the purpose of the study, SME’s. Further studies conducted by Ratnasingam (2001, cited in Hussin, 2005) to identify factors that may discourage adoption include the perceived lack of security, customer readiness, organisational inertia and lack of knowledge. Additional studies by Darch and Lucas (2002) also conveys the perceived barriers to adoption as lack of awareness to what e-commerce actually involves and lack of e-commerce related skills. Therefore, adoption is far more complex than earlier studies portrayed and is a decision that involves a variety of interconnected issues, which include both internal and external factors. Adoption therefore, must be seen as a gradual process, rather than an individual occasion and will be discussed further in the levels and stages of adoption sections. 2.2.4 E-Readiness E-readiness is genuinely defined as the degree to which a society is prepared to participate in the digital economy with the underlying concept that the digital economy can help build a better society (Krull, 2003). Krull makes reference to society as a whole, but for purpose of the study, the author will understand the society as being an organisation or SME.   Huang et al (2004) describes e-readiness for enterprises important and that it will lead them to a more positive direction in managing their relationships with key stakeholders as well as providing the opportunity to access quality information, reduce the digital divide and create new business opportunities (Kurnia, 2008 cited in Krull, 2003). According to the e-readiness rankings report (2009) the UK is placed 13 suggesting SME’s are in a good position to adopt e-commerce as all the foundations are in place. 2.3 Benefits Significant levels of research into the realisation of SME benefits of e-commerce adoption have been conducted thoroughly in recent times. A report conducted by Poon and Swatman (1999) regarding the benefits achieved refers to the fact that e-mail and document transfer have both been useful to SME’s. Since then, e-commerce and researchers have moved on, with many authors agreeing on the benefits of e-commerce, however further discussions have arisen in regards to the way in which benefits are not achieved automatically. Wilson, Daniel and Davies (2006) stating that adoption does not however, of itself, guarantee that the intended business benefits will be achieved.   They are also of the opinion that, along with Pawar and Driver (2000, cited in Quayle, 2002) who also conducted similar studies, that despite the awareness of potential benefits, not every firm is ready to embrace e-commerce as a business tool. 2.3.1 Economic Benefits Once the adoption process takes place, there are two main benefits that a SME can expect, economical and strategical. For the purpose of the study, the author will concentrate upon the economic benefits incurred through the adoption of e-commerce.   With the UK’s total spend through e-commerce reaching nearly  £56billion in 2010 (IMRG, Capgemini, 2010) and expectations for the market to grow by 110% in the next decade, the financial benefits are obvious. Studies conducted in the UK’s SME’s by Clegg et al (2001) concluded that three issues are likely to have an effect on the uptake of the internet by SME’s was the perceived benefits, organisational readiness and external pressures. However, Dongen et al (2002) argued that much of the literature supposes that ICT adoption is for opportunistic reasons, such as cost, rather than for strategic reasons. Furthermore, recent surveys suggest that the main reason for adoption amongst UK’s SME’s is to increase sales (Actinic, 2002 cited in Simpson et al, 2004). Although literature suggests that the chief reasoning behind e-commerce adoption is for financial benefit, the actual reality of attaining economic growth is difficult to achieve. Furthermore, the research by DTI (2001b) suggest that the financial benefits come about through the reduction in expenditure and the increase of opportunity gain, as advertising costs can be reduced through having a web presen ce. 2.3.2 Illusions and Promises Additional studies by Chrysostome and Rosson (2004) support the fact that it is certainly difficult to attain economic benefits. Subsequently, they devised a framework, consisting of eight factoring suggestions that convey both the illusions and promises of the growth UK SME’s and they’re engagement in the international market. They highlight the view that not all expectations of innovative advancements are recognised, with an example of the invention of the printing press in 1450. They suggest that many of the perceived benefits are illusions while promises are realistic and attainable benefits through the process of adoption. 4 Illusions: MARKET PENETRATION (difficult international market) GLOBAL COMPETITION (intensity) COSTS (difficult to attain) LEGALITY DIFFERENCES (foreign trade laws) 4 Promises: SPEED OF MARKET ENTRY (instant) VARIETY OF MARKETS (penetrate numerous markets) ENTRY MODE (choice = minimised risk) INTER-ORGANISATIONAL NETWORKS (reduced costs) Chrysostome and Rosson (2004) 2.3.3 Do or Die: Internationalisation The rate of the occurrence of Internationalisation for an organisation is an important characteristic in any neo-classical approach. Furthermore, in evolutionary theories, stage by stage development is considered necessary so that cautious progress can be made, ensuring that an enterprise can build resources, gain knowledge of international markets and therefore develop a stronger capability (Chrysostome and Rosson, 2004). Added studies by Peterson et al (2002) found that the internet can speed up the rate of enterprise internationalisation, especially through the reduction in costs incurred by SME’s. As a result, SME’s should worry less about the amount of resources they have when aiming to penetrate the international market. This leads to the ‘Born Global’ concept derived from Knight and Cavusgil (1996) suggesting that SME’s can ‘leapfrog’ the primary stages of the neo-classical internationalisation process. Although numerous advantages exist through SME internationalisation, there is also an element of risk associated with its development. The most noticeable barriers reported by SME’s are included in the Internationalisation report of European SME’s (2010). The reports illustrates that the barriers exist in two separate categories, internal and external. INTERNAL Price of own product or service High cost of Internationalisation EXTERNAL Lack of capital Lack of adequate information Lack of adequate public support Costs/difficulties with extended transport partnerships Although the majority of the barriers are objective, sum issues within the external barriers are perceived and do not necessarily exist in reality. Consequently, UK SME’s are generally not aware of the existence of public support programmes for internationalisation (Mendoza et al, 2001). Having discussed the promises that e-commerce adoption and its ability to internationalise a business, the author will now examine the illusions that appear to be embedded within the perception of UK SME’s. Large scale global competition lies waiting for those SME’s who aim to utilise the internet as a tool for internationalisation. Fillis (2002) found that exporting SME’s in the UK experienced pricing and promotion difficulties in regards to those displayed by competitors. This was a greater problem for those who rely upon the internet as its main operational medium. As the enterprises discussed are relatively small in capacity, they’re limited resources make it difficult to match competitors budgets and prices (Sawhney and Mandal, 2000). As well as the intense internet global competition, the so called ‘savings’ will now be discussed. Contrary to the perceptions of budding SME’s, online business incurs significant levels of cost. In contrast to view that the internet generates cost savings, in reality, these savings are far less noteworthy than initially thought and studies by Fattori (2001) state that in many cases, SME’s have actually experienced higher costs. This is largely accurate for SME’s who have penetrated the international market as Heart and Priskin (2002) state that internet costs savings are cited to most often occur in paperwork, customer service, intermediation and advertising and promotion. However, they also conveyed that the actual savings incurred differed with the size of an enterprise. Further studies showed that larger companies were more likely to save in customer service where as SME’s were expected to save on advertising and promotional costs (Riquelme, 2002).   Apart from these potential variant costs, other costly expenditures exist with the initial creatio n of internet based commerce. These costs consist of website creation, including software and hardware, maintenance and updating and website translation or cultural adjustments should the SME wish to penetrate the international market (Chrysostome and Rosson, 2004). Futhermore, a standard 10 page website with e-commerce capabilities may cost around  £2500 with additional fees for forums, interactivity, Search engine optimization (SEO) and content management [www.toucher.co.uk/website-price, cited in 2011]. 2.3.4 M-Commerce Tiwari (2007) defines Mobile Commerce as any transaction, involving the transfer of ownership or rights to use goods and services, which is initiated and/or completed by using mobile access to computer-mediated networks with the help of an electronic device. As Tiwari explains, m-commerce has the same basic definition as e-commerce, however is achieved with portable technology. Since its origination in 1997 through mobile-phone enabled Coca-Cola vending machines in Finland, using SMS text messages to receive payment, the mobile industry has revolutionised the portability of business transactions (Ahonen, 2002). In recent times, m-commerce has developed greatly and since the invention of Apples, Iphone in 2007, the levels of purchase using a mobile devise has risen dramatically. Findings from the Broadbank m-commerce content report (2010) displayed that 46% of UK consumers had purchased using their mobile phone. Furthermore, Raicu (2001) believes that m-commerce provides numerous bene fits including independent access any time, access on demand anywhere and use of devises that suits the needs of the consumer, for example mobile phones, laptops or Tablets. As well as possessing all the attributes of e-commerce, Khosrow-Pour (2006) suggests that enterprises are using mobile devices to re-engineer and speed up internal and connecting business processes. Furthermore, Nysveen et al (2005) suggests that this is possible since employees and partners can connect to ‘back-end’ applications needing the finalise sales and in turn reducing the sales process and eliminates extra travelling costs. Therefore, a SME can utilise m-commerce in the same way as e-commerce with additional benefits of providing accessibility anytime, anywhere (Raicu, 2001). 2.3.5 Benefits for UK SME’s Following a plethora of literature regarding the concepts and potential of e-commerce, the question remains whether SME’s have benefited from its adoption. During the investigation process throughout this document, the author noticed that Poon (2002) and the degrees of success was a constant barometer.   Poon stated that there having been various levels of success and that they are the reasons why e-commerce is more important than ever before. These factors have included the reduction in the adoption process of e-commerce in regards to both hardware and software. Secondly, companies have learnt from either their own experience or the experiences of others and are now finding e-commerce adoption easier. Finally, the rise in resources and programmes offered, many from government provide assistance for SME’s. Although, many SME’s have utilised the adoption of e-commerce as previously discussed, Poon’s studies (2002) suggest that not all companies have benefited from it. Furthermore, even in favourable organisations with a respectable e-readiness, mixed success rates have been found, and those who have actually achieved benefits have either been insignificant or have had a short life span. 2.4   E-commerce adoption In recent times, numerous studies have been conducted to investigate the levels of e-commerce adoption for the purposes of SME’s. The focus of this research has concentrated upon three crucial factors: the level of adoption, the stages of adoption and the factors that inhibit or permit adoption. 2.4.1   Levels of adoption In order for an enterprise to fully understand the levels of adoption, the author will discuss Grewel’s (2001) classification model to support SME e-commerce adoption initiatives. Firstly, there is a risk in approaching the question of whether SMEs can be seen as a homogenous group in terms of e-commerce adoption, as there is a scarcity of literature. For example, while it is clear that the owner/manager is a significant driver for e-commerce adoption, it is only recently that research has begun to appear that investigates the motivations behind their move towards adoption (Levy and Powell, 2003). Therefore, for the purpose of the study, the author will use the model as a categorisation tool to homogenise SME’s theoretically. LEVEL 1: Landlubbers – SME’s have no intention of moving to the electronic environment. These businesses tend to be small, have little employees and occupy and small and stable market with no intention of expansion. LEVEL 2: Toe Dippers – SME’s that have basic computer needs and limited skills in using them. Unwillingness to expend beyond a minimal level but are of the view that the internet can be helpful for tasks on a day-to-day basis for use of e-mail and online banking. LEVEL 3: Paddlers – Participants of e-commerce and are sometimes registered within an e-marketplace, but carry out virtually no business through it. Have an eagerness to learn but a lack of confidence and ability to advance to a higher level of involvement. LEVEL 4: Waders – Categorised by SME’s that for reasons of choice or pressure from stakeholders, have moved into the electronic environment. The firms within are initiated in electronic services and are beginning to learn how to participate in online business. LEVEL 5: Swimmers – Businesses within this level are experts and are comfortable with many e-commerce applications and online trading is an integral part of their business. Grewel’s (2001) classifications indicate that the diffusion levels are affected the resources and can be best targeted at specific groups to encourage higher levels of e-participation, rather than disperse the resources holistically across all SME’s (Levy and Powell, 2003). Furthermore, findings of Grey (2003) show further evidence that adoption levels are not merely down to resources but that adoption rates differ from country to country and that SME’s throughout the world are at different levels of adoption in comparison to others found in different countries. Additionally, both the levels, stage and rate of adoption is influenced by the conditions within that locality. As discussed earlier, the UK is placed 13th on the e-readiness rankings (2009) suggesting that the UK’s levels of adoption are reflective of the benefits already achieved by its SME’s. 2.4.2 Stages of adoption The second factor of adoption deals with the stages or phases of adoption. Cater-Steel and Grist (2004) describe the steps that should be taken to further adopt the internet, although they are also of the opinion that e-commerce will only be adopted as the need arises for the integration into the supply-chain and not just for the sake of having e-commerce. Jeffcoate, Chappell and Feindt (2002) also explored the topic matter and devised a best-practise model for the process in adopting e-commerce. They indentified 11 imperative dynamics of success that are vital during the different phases of the adoption process. However, the most crucial issue raised was that the process which is normally segmented into numerous stages is definitely an ongoing process rather than a one-off event. Similarly, Rogers (1995) also subscribes to the view of adoption as a process with the 5 factors model of innovation adoption. Levy and Powell (2003) further assist Rogers with their adoption ladder framework and are of the opinion that most SME’s only see value at the bottom end of the ladder.Furthermore, there seems to be an overall agreement that the process in the adoption of e-commerce is indeed a process and is implemented in stages rather than an individual one-off occasion. Additionally, the stages are usually adopted at the lower end of the cl assification model (Grewel, 2001), slowly climbing the adoption ladder towards the more complex aspects of e-commerce. 2.4.3   Influencing factors of adoption Qi (2007) and Kiong (2004) investigated the reasoning behind moving from neo-classical forms of commerce to the post-modern capabilities of electronic commerce. They identified a wide range of influencing factors, yet most were mainly regarding monetary benefits. However, further studies by Simpson (2004) conveyed that pressure from society was also a pivotal factor encouraging adoption. Scupola (2003) devised a framework that represents the factors influencing adoption. These factors have been categorised into three segmented groups including the external environment, organisational context and technological context. In addition, managers who perceived e-commerce has having a positive effect on the strategic value of an company posses a positive attitude to adoption (Grandon and Pearson, 2003) whereas Ramsey’s (2005) research into the differences in adopters and non-adopters found that adopters are far more proactive and have a greater e-awareness to indentifying technologica l possibilities. Following the analysis upon the factors influencing adoption, the most notable appears to be the perceptions and attitudes of managers towards e-commerce within organisation. SME’s that have made to successful transition to utilising e-commerce have all portrayed an positive opinion of technological innovation and that it provides them with a opportunity to create a competitive advantage over rival companies and a basis to build better relationships with any stakeholders involved. 3.   Methodology   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3.1 Philosophy Qualitative research has been extensively compared with quantitative research and has found three different theories about how knowledge is accepted known as epistemology (Bryman and Bell, 2007). Quantitative research has been labelled under the natural scientist theory of positivism (Saunders et al, 2007), which collects data and creates facts on what is in front of them. Hypothesis’ are made by reviewing past literature before undertaking research, which is then compared as to whether the predictions are correct. Qualitative research is labelled at the other end of the epistemological spectrum (Strauss and Corbin, 1998) under Interpretivist or social constructivist (Bryman and Bell, 2007). This theory looks past statistical evidence and penetrates deeper into the information to identify dissimilar answers and read the reactions of people’s behaviour (Saunders et al, 2007). This has a very subjective view due to differentiated opinions and different minds of people (Strauss and Corbin, 1998), which can cause negative outcomes which will be discussed later. Finally, Realism could be said to be in the middle of the two extremes, showing characteristics of both a positivist and an interpretivist (Bryman and Bell, 2007). Realism is comparable to positivism (Saunders et al, 2007) with its scientific approach to data but the theory is divided into two mindsets: Direct realism takes more of the positivist approach by looking at the data and producing results from what is in front of them (Bryman and Bell, 2007). However another mindset has been formulated in the form of critical realism (Saunders et al, 2007), looking past the direct realism and believe that complexities occur in data, which leaves the researcher creating their own interpretations of data (Bryman and Bell, 2007). 3.2 Qualitative V Quantitative It has long been recognised that qualitative and quantitative methods produce different types of information. The use of quantitative methods permits statistical analysis using standardised measures to gauge and compare the reactions of a large number of people on a limited set of questions (Patton, 1997). By contrast, qualitative methods facilitate use of data that are perceived as rich, holistic and real for which face validity seems faultless (Miles, 1983 cited in Howard et al 2001). These characteristics and the lack of standardisation of much qualitative data make them difficult to analyse and require that the researcher devote much time and effort to managing the data (Howard et al, 2001). In contrast, a number of quantitative indices are generally available and additional indicators can be developed by various means, including satisfaction scales and involvement levels. However, Lillis (2008) states that the knowledge that books and numbers have limitations as it doesn’t tell the whole truth. Conversely, qualitative indicators are less readily available. A research design that includes a collection of these indicators is important for numerous reasons. Firstly, qualitative research can lead to the findings of unanticipated data that wasn’t previously expected. Secondly, qualitative methods can also assist the decision makers whose main desire is to gain an understanding to what the people studied actually think and why they think that as well as the values and motivations to that particular thought and behaviour (Van Maanen, 1983 cited in Howard et al, 2001). Furthermore, Bryman and Bell (2007) identify qualitative research as too subjective, on a person’s opinion, their perception could be based on a poor experience however, overall perceptions from others could be different. The data is also difficult to replicate, which is therefore a huge difficulty in analysing, unlike quantitative research (Veal, 1998). To summarise, there is always going to be conflict between the contrasting methods and that both methods have advantages and disadvantages, yet each can be realised when used to research different topics. Furthermore, the author concurs with the opinion of Van Maanen suggesting that qualitative methods provide access to deep-routed answers. 3.3 Approaches In the approach to deciding upon the research method, two means have been identified including both inductive and deductive approaches (Veal, 1998). Qualitative research takes on the inductive approach, in which a collection of data and a development of theory is a result of data analysis owing itself to paradigms of interpretivism. Whereas, quantitative research uses a deductive approach, in which theory and/or a hypothesis is developed to design a research strategy to test that hypothesis which owes itself to positivism (Saunders et al, 2007). Although, both approaches provide contrasting paradigms and that they are divided rigidly, Saunders et al (2007) suggest that it is misleading and that not only is it perfectly possible to combine the approaches, but it may be advantageous to do so. However, as the author is aiming to understand why something is happening, rather than being able to describe what is happening, it is more appropriate to undertake the research, inductively. 3.4 Strategies After exploring both Bryman and Bell (2007) and Saunders et al’s (2007) methods for research literature, the author noticed various techniques to devise a research plan. Taking a quantitative approach may include techniques such as questionnaires or experiments and provide statistical evidence. However, the approach taken by the author to conduct the research is via a qualitative approach and therefore its emphasis upon specific strategies such as observations, interviews and focus groups. Further strategies may include Glaser and Strauss’ (167, cited in Bryman and Bell, 2007) Grounded theory whereby an alternative strategy for linking both theory and research is available suggesting that the research may build up a collection of theory throughout the ongoing process of research.   An additional technique known as archival research makes use of administrative records and documents as the principle source of data.   Furthermore, the data is part of an archival strategy and is analysed because they are part of the day-to-day activities (Hakim, 2000 cited in Saunders et al, 2007). This may become relevant for the purpose of the study as it assists qualitative methods of research within suitable environments, such as observations. 3.5 Choices of method Reference List Adoption of e-commerce in SME: Lessons from the stage model: Ada Scupola, 2003. 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